Figure–ground (perception)
Whilst researching Negative Space I came across Figure-Ground Perception. This is something I am interesting in studying so I understand how to recognise and apply the different techniques in others work and my own.
I enjoy simple design and like creating minimal designs so I find this subject interesting. It explains the theory of how the brain distinguishes different visual characteristics and how to use them for the desired effect. For example, the grouping of objects with similar characteristics suggests as belonging together.
These principles can be applied to all areas of design but I am interesting in the application to:
- Branding/Identity
Definition:
Figure ground perception is a visual relationship between foreground and background. This is important to the perception of images, as the edges form the image that we see.
The History
Hermann von Helmholtz is often credited with the first study of visual perception in modern times. Helmholtz examined the human eye and concluded that it was, optically, rather poor. The poor-quality information gathered via the eye seemed to him to make vision impossible. He therefore concluded that vision could only be the result of some form of unconscious inferences: a matter of making assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, based on previous experiences.
Hermann von Helmholtz is often credited with the first study of visual perception in modern times. Helmholtz examined the human eye and concluded that it was, optically, rather poor. The poor-quality information gathered via the eye seemed to him to make vision impossible. He therefore concluded that vision could only be the result of some form of unconscious inferences: a matter of making assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, based on previous experiences.
Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception
Gestalt psychologists working primarily in the 1930s and 1940s raised many of the research questions that are studied by vision scientists today.
The Gestalt theorists were the first group of psychologists to systematcially study perceptual organisation around the 1920’s, in Germany. They were Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ernst Mach, and particularly of Christian von Ehrenfels and the research work of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and Kurt Lewin.
Gestalt means when parts identified individually have different characteristics to the whole (Gestalt means "organised whole")e.g. describing a tree - it's parts are trunk, branches, leaves, perhaps blossoms or fruit.
But when you look at an entire tree, you are not conscious of the parts, you are aware of the overall object - the tree.
Parts are of secondary importance even though they can be clearly seen.
The most famous example of figure–ground perception, which is fully explained in the six Gestalt Principles detailed below, is probably the faces–vase drawing that Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin. This drawing exemplifies one of the key aspects of figure–ground organization, edge-assignment and its effect on shape perception. Notice in the faces/vase drawing, the perceived shape depends critically on the direction in which the border (edge) between the black and white regions is assigned. If the two curvy edges between the black and white regions are assigned inward then the central white region is seen as a vase shape in front of a black background. No faces are perceived in this case. On the other hand, if the edges are assigned outwards, then the two black profile faces are perceived on a white background and no vase shape is perceived. The human visual system will then settle on either of the interpretations of the Rubin vase and alternate between them. Functional brain imaging shows that when people see the Rubin image as a face, there is activity in the temporal lobe, specifically in the face-selective region
Six Principles of Gestalt Perception
Principle 1 - Proximity
1 + 2 = as one group
3 + 4 = as another group
Similarly, on the left, three groups of dots in three lines. What happens with the evenly spaced dots?
The principle of proximity or contiguity states that things which are closer together will be seen as belonging together.
Principle 2 - Similarity
The principle of similarity states that things which share visual characteristics such as shape, size, color, texture, value or orientation will be seen as belonging together.
Principle 3 - Common Fate
They appear to change grouping.
Principle 4 - Good Continuation
Seeing things as whole lines (sequential) is clearly important. But 'being in wholes means' that few interruptions change the reading of the whole
lines.
A to O and Oto D are two lines. Similarly,
C to O and O to B are two lines.
The principle of continuity predicts the preference for continuous figures. We perceive the figure as two crossed lines instead of 4 lines meeting at the centre.
Principle 5 - Closure
a tendency to close simple figures, independent of continuity or similarity. This results in a effect of filling in missing information or organising information which is present to make a whole
In the circle at the top its seen easily. In the other to figures it's a little more complex. The second figure can be read as two overlapping rectangles (the gestalt) whereas it can also be seen as three shapes touching; a square and two other irregular shapes.
The final shape can be seen as a curve joining three squares or as three uneven shapes touching.
Principle 6 - Area and Symmetry
The principle of the symmetrical figure is that it is seen as a closed figure. Symmetrical contours thus define a figure and isolate it from its ground. The principle of symmetry describes the instance where the whole of a figure is perceived rather than the individual parts which make up the figure.
The result of attention paid to design elements arranged with Gestalt principles in mind is a design that has a clear message and is visually organized. The resulting groupings of elements and information creates a hierarchy of relative importance in that overall message.
Figure vs. Ground
Figure: The main focus of the composition (positive space)
Figure is a compositional element to which we pay attention. It is also identified as a positive shape in a visual composition. It is defined as the outline, form, or silhouette of an object. It refers to an active, positive form revealed against a passive, negative ground. In the simplest visual compositions there may be only one figure that the viewer needs to pay attention to. In more complex visual compositions, there may be multiple figures. Familiar, figurative, and representational objects are easy to see and assimilate as figure.
Ground: The secondary portion of the composition (negative space)
Three Distinct Types
- Simple Figure Ground
- Figure Ground Reversal
- Figure Ground Ambiguity
Simple Figure Ground
Figure Ground Reversal
Figure ground reversal is the inversion of background and foreground. This is often used in logo designs and can often ground an image. In a simple figure ground the borders are perceived as limitless, whereas the figure ground reversal bounds the image.
Figure Ground Ambiguity
MC Escher's Sky and Water I, 1938
Figure ground ambiguity is the visual illusion with two alternate viewpoints. This is similar to figure ground reversal, but the alternate image creates a totally different perception. In this version of figure ground, a pair of objects share a similar edge. This illusion is created by the inversion of figure and ground.
Why is it important?
Determining the figure ground relationship is also the very first thing people do when they direct their gaze; new things come into view and our brains need a basis upon which to make sense of things. We have to determine which elements are figures (requiring immediate concern and attention) and which are ground (not so important right now, but do provide context).
This process is of vital importance to humans and likely has its evolutionary basis in threat detection (am I walking on just leaves and weeds or am I about to step on a rattlesnake?). Of course, it also ensures that we are able to prioritize our perception so we don’t go banging into things accidentally or ignore something of immediate proximity and importance. Our perception of the figure ground relationship allows us to organize what we see by how each object relates to others. The short and sweet version is: it allows us to determine what we’re supposed to look at and what we might safely ignore.
We do this instantly and without effort in most cases, as we’re often in familiar surroundings and looking at familiar things. But when we are made to look at something unfamiliar, especially if it is a designed page, figure ground relationship clues determine the success of our experience. This success is the designer’s mandate.
Characteristics
The principle of figure–ground is one of the most basic in visual communications because it refers to our ability to visually separate elements based on contrast—dark and light, black and white, and positive and negative. In the simplest terms, the figure is what we notice and the ground is everything else we tend to not notice. An effective and perceptible figure–ground relationship occurs when the eye can identify a figure as an object distinct and separate from its ground or compositional background. This perception is dependent solely on the design principle of contrast.
A composition's figure–ground relationship is clear and stable when the figure receives more attention and immediacy than the ground. When a figure–ground relationship is unstable, the relationship is ambiguous; therefore, the compositional elements can be interpreted in different ways. Balanced and effective figure–ground relationships animate any composition, adding visual impact and power to its message.
However, when a figure dominates its ground, the effect can be clear but potentially boring. Locating a clearly defined object in the center of a composition leaves no doubt about the subject, but its presentation may lack visual nuance and power.
Ultimately, figure–ground is one of the most important design principles to consider when creating any visual communication. In doing so, graphic designers can further guarantee that the work they are producing will be effective, communicative, memorable, and highly meaningful to the viewer.
Using Figure Ground in Design
The mind tends to seek distinctions between the figure (the subject of the design or image) and the ground (the background). A designer typically wants the figure to demand attention; the ground should support the figure and not distract the viewer. A good design creates a balance in that the ground helps define the figure - whether through creating lines that define the shape of the figure, adding color that creates a mood, or establishing a reference point like place - but the figure is what the viewer notices and processes.
Distinctions between figure and ground can be accomplished in a number of ways:
- Contrast of colour
- Blurred or out of focus background
- Placement of the figure in the image
- Magnifying the figure so that the ground is virtually non-existent
- Minimizing the figure so that the figure appears to be isolated or insignificant
In addition to interesting optical illusions, figure ground ambiguity can be used to emphasize the ground while the most obvious figure is made less prominent. An example might be sightseers against a landscape in a travel brochure.
Care should be taken, though, to avoid images where the figure is camouflaged unless the intention is to require the viewer to search the image for the figure.
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